italy imperialism in africa

The people of Morocco were never consulted. Imperialism is a phenomenon that started in the 16th century in America and then it had developed till the rst decades of the 19th century, when about one fth of world's land surface was conquered by . Italy, as a relative latecomer to the colonial project, acquired what many Europeans considered to be the less desirable territories in Africa, including Eritrea, where Italian colonization was established in 1890; Somalia, where Italian rule began in 1905; and Libya, where Italian rule commenced in 1912. Many children with Italian fathers and African mothers were born, and were accepted as legitimate until the race laws of 1938 criminalized madamismo and delegitimated children of mixed race. New York: Viking. In 1922, the leader of the Italian fascist movement, Benito Mussolini, became Prime Minister and dictator. In July 1940, Italian foreign minister Count Ciano presented Hitler with a list of Italy's goals that included: the annexation of Corsica, Nice, and Malta; protectorate in Tunisia and a buffer zone in Eastern Algeria; independence with Italian military presence and bases in Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Transjordan as well as expropriation of oil companies in those territories; military occupation of Aden, Perim and Sokotra; Cyprus given to Greece in exchange for Ionian islands and Ciamuria given to Italy; Italy is given British Somaliland, Djibuti, French Equatorial Africa up to Ubangi-Shari, as well as Ciano adding at the meeting that Italy wanted Kenya and Uganda as well. Fascist racial laws were often ignored and not enforced, however, because they seemed alien to both Italians and colonial subjects. answer choices. Alice Viti 5*DL. They nevertheless perpetuated the argument that black Africans were an inferior people, but that the peoples of Libya, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, being of Semitic background (with some Hamitic or African admixture), were capable of civilization. This article will examine racial policies in the Italian colonies during both periods and will conclude by noting the impact of the colonial experience on post-imperial Italy. In its second invasion of Ethiopia in 193536, Italy was successful and it merged its new conquest with its older east African colonies to create Italian East Africa. The memory of this defeat would later inspire a second invasion of Ethiopia. Shaka used his power and fought against European slave traders and ivory hunters. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. Some of the positive effects of this western imperialism were the new technologies such as medicine and nutrition that were brought to Africa. Transfarm Africa's John Guinan is quoted on his views on the new form of imperialism in Africa. [3] In June 1917, Italy proclaimed central and southern Albania as a protectorate of Italy while Northern Albania was allocated to the states of Serbia and Montenegro. Alfred Rosenberg, the Nazi racial theorist, even denounced what he called the Judeo-Fascist regime located in world-polluting Rome.. The MAIN ECONOMIC reason industrialized nations wanted to carry out imperialism in Africa after the Industrial Revolution was: answer choices. For example, the colonial powers were the reason many economic opportunities opened up. Italians saw themselves as a spiritual community to which Jews could also belong. Imperialism means the extension of a nation's power over other lands. Italy's trade with her colonies in 1894-1932 was worth 5,561 million lire (about $1,100 million)." " her expenditures on colonies for that time was 6,856 . European imperialism in Africa was partly due to rivalries between the different European countries involved, with Britain, Germany and France the dominant powers. Giacomo Matteoti (1885-1924) was leader of the Italian Socialist Party and bitter and effective critic of Mussolini's dictatorship,, Mussolini, Benito 2003. As is often the case with peoples of an imperial colony, many Algerian immigrants and their descendants lived in Paris in October 1961. . Before that time, what is twenty-first-century Italy consisted of several independent kingdoms. On 1 July 1960, Somalia merged with British Somaliland to form the independent Somali Republic. [37] This was refused by French Prime Minister douard Herriot, who was not yet sufficiently worried about the prospect of a German resurgence.[37]. Imperialism in africa Rating: 7,4/10 1943 reviews Imperialism in Africa was a period of colonization of African territory by European powers during the 19th and early 20th . During the Middle Ages and the modern period, the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa controlled networks of "colonies" in the Mediterranean region known as the . The reasons for this were various: the fact of native troops not actually being involved in military operations on the European front; the . The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. [45] It is possible that Mussolini simply wanted a spectacular success over a smaller neighbour to match Germany's absorption of Austria and Czechoslovakia. In November 1942, when the Germans occupied Vichy France during Case Anton, Italian-occupied France was expanded with the occupation of Corsica. There were discussions to maintain Tripolitania (a province of Italian Libya) as the last Italian colony, but these were not successful. On the eve of the Allied landings at Salerno, which started the Allied invasion of Italy, the new Italian government secretly signed an armistice with the Allies. Using such arguments, Italy could justify its conquest and subjugation of Africans, with the hope that Italian civilization would spread to the colonized regions. This article focuses on the extent to which imperialism contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. Thus Italys racialist views of its colonial subjects differed in some respects from that of other colonial powers. When they joined the war in 1915, they had a sizable army of . The German and Italian armies overran Yugoslavia in about two weeks and, despite British support in Greece, the Axis troops overran that country by the end of April. For example, the conquest of Libyasometimes called the Fourth Shore of Italywas lengthy and oppressive. Pp. [50] A German intervention prevented the fall of Libya and the combined Axis attacks drove the British back into Egypt until summer 1942, before being stopped at El Alamein. The Scramble for Africa took place during the New Imperialism between 1881 and 1914. . 30 seconds. 132. sought to increase the size of the Italian empire, Italy and the colonization of the Americas, Military history of Italy during World War I. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. Mussolinis regime sought to regain a foothold in Africa starting in the 1920s, and did so with his conquering of Ethiopia 1936 when he declared an official Italian Empire. However, WWI had depleted the resources of the Italian government and Mussolini failed to understand realistically what was necessary to successfully maintain rule over African colonies. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. P. 152. In 1884 the German Chancellor Bismarck organized the Berlin Conference in order to divide up Africa in a civilized matter between Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, and Italy. Imperialism In Africa Dbq Answers Ffclub If you ally need such a referred Imperialism In Africa Dbq Answers Ffclub ebook that will give you worth, get the unquestionably best seller from us currently from several preferred authors. By this time other European countries had already claimed most parts of Africa. Despite the theoretical respect for peoples of Semitic and Hamitic origin, actual Italian conquest was brutal. Zulu Nation Cape Town Cape Colony Shaka Zulu. Change). The colonisation of Africa was part of a global European process reaching all the continents of the world. On 8 September, the armistice was made public. More than 100,000 Libyans were imprisoned in concentration camps, and from 1928 on cities were bombed with poison gas (despite Italy being a signatory of the Geneva Convention in 1925), which one Fascist commentator described as a cleansing. Separate communities were established for Italians, keeping them apart from Arabs and Jews. The aim of Italian policy, which cannot have, and does not have continental objectives of a European territorial nature except Albania, is first of all to break the bars of this prison Once the bars are broken, Italian policy can only have one motto to march to the oceans. ." Long Term Causes. ITALY'S INFORMAL IMPERIALISM IN TIANJIN DURING THE LIBERAL EPOCH, 1902-1922* - Volume 59 Issue 2 . Between the 15th and 16th centuries, Italian explorers contributed to the colonial enterprises of other European countries in the Americas: Cristopher Columbus from Genoa served Spain, Amerigo Vespucci from Florence served Portugal, the Cabot brothers from Venice served England, and Giovanni da Verrazzano from Florence served France. The second period begins around 1937, when the occupation of Ethiopia was complete and when Fascist racial policy became more explicit and extreme. Some professions. 1976. This interpretation allowed for a separate, fourth race, which was associated with black Africans and was used by Europeans to justify African slavery. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War cost 4,359 killed in action2,313 Italians, 1,086 Eritreans, 507 Somalis and Libyans, and 453 Italian laborers. Malta and Cyprus constitute a threat to all our positions in the eastern and western Mediterranean. Hess, Robert L. 1966. Yet still, Italy could never quite catch up with other Europeans in the colonization of Africa. Modern Italy. ." For decades, Italy didn't admit that it had used chemical weapons in Africa. Maurizio Marinelli, Giovanni Andornino, Italy's Encounter with Modern China: Imperial dreams, strategic ambitions, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. Between 1871 and 1914, Italy attempted to grow in power, and thus in the size of it's military. [33] In 1938, Italy demanded a sphere of influence in the Suez Canal in Egypt, specifically demanding that the French-dominated Suez Canal Company accept an Italian representative on its board of directors. [7] During the Middle Ages and the modern period, the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa controlled networks of "colonies" in the Mediterranean region known as the Venetian Empire and the Genoese Empire respectively. The main countries involved in the imperialism in Africa were the French, German, and Great Britain. At first they won the war. Part 3: Nemesis in 1941,", "Empire" as a description of foreign policy, This page was last edited on 2 January 2023, at 11:07. If an Italian was caught committing a crime by an African policeman, he could not be arrested because that would undermine the prestige of Italians and the white race generally. In German East Africa, revolts began in the 1800's and continued to the beginning of the 20th century. Nigel Thomas. By May 1943, Axis forces in Tunisia were forced to surrender. Kelly, Saul. During the Second World War (19391945), Italy occupied British Somaliland, parts of south-eastern France, western Egypt and most of Greece, but then lost those conquests and its African colonies, including Ethiopia, to the invading allied forces by 1943. [15], Italy's search for colonies continued until February 1886, when, by secret agreement with Britain, it annexed the port of Massawa in Eritrea on the Red Sea from the crumbling Egyptian Empire. Italians, including Fascists, generally did not approve of Nazi doctrines, thinking them crude, pagan, brutal, and unprincipled. Many Ethiopians even thought that Italy had brought many benefits to the country, including the abolition of slavery, new roads, the control of famine, and the reduction of intertribal warfare. "Inside the Italian Empire: Colonial Africa, Race Wars, and the Southern Question." When Somalia became independent in 1960, Italy's eight-decade experiment with colonialism had ended. Britain's colonies are shown in the color orange. The Italian government developed a centralised administration with the aim of sending Italians to live in the colonies. In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. to spread Christianity. [22] Total Italian, Eritrean, and Somali deaths, including those from disease, were estimated at 9,000.[22]. Part 2: Fatal Victory, 1935-6. For other uses, see, "New Roman Empire" redirects here. [53] However, following the surrender of East Africa, some Italians conducted a guerrilla war which lasted for two more years. Greece, Turkey, and Egypt have been ready to form a chain with Great Britain and to complete the politico-military encirclement of Italy. The confrontation led Britain and Italy to resolve the question of Jubaland in 1924, which was merged into Italian Somaliland. Italy and other imperialist countries, . Following the independence of Somalia in 1960, Italy's 65-year period of imperialism concluded. Italian colonialism was also not guided by religious motives of converting native populations to Christianity. Italy, which only had access to an inland sea without French and British acquiescence, was only a "semi-independent nation", and alleged to be a "prisoner in the Mediterranean":[34], "The bars of this prison are Corsica, Tunisia, Malta, and Cyprus. B. W. W. Norton & Company, 2003. India was influenced mainly by Britain, whereas multiple European countries, including Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Belgium, and Portugal, were involved with sub-Saharan Africa. There are several main causes to the Scramble for Africa, including: European competition, ethnocentrism, the spread of Christianity . During these years, almost all of Africa came under the control of the major European powers, including: Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal and Spain. Fascists thought that mingling Italians with Africans weakened the Italian people. Prior to this progressive period, Libya was a neocolony, its leader subservient to U.S. and British imperialism. The Fascist government that came to power with dictator Benito Mussolini after 1922 sought to increase the size of the Italian empire and to satisfy the claims of Italian irredentists. Even hardcore Fascists such as Roberto Farinacci disliked Nazi doctrines, especially Alfred Rosenbergs racist ideas, because he believed that ideas about German racial superiority could be used against Mediterranean people as well as Jews. Italian colonialism in Africa came to an end with the death of the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, the collapse of the Fascist regime, and the defeat of Italy in World War II. The French's empire was mainly in . European Imperialism in Africa. The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 July 1940. For other uses, see, Former colonies, protectorates and occupied areas. Sebastian Balfour, Paul Preston. From this racist perspective, Italy could congratulate itself on acquiring colonies in those parts of Africa where the potential for civilization was greatest. The resistance movement, the Sanussi, was repressed, and its mosques closed and its leaders, such as Omar Mukhtar, imprisoned and executed. Essay type Research. Allying racism with nationalism and national identity, the Fascist Party motivated Italians to also think of ethnicity, rather than religion or culture, as what separated them from others, thus leading to increasing anti-Semitism in Italy. The Italian press supported the move, noting that Corfu had been a Venetian possession for four hundred years. [22] The Ethiopians counted at least 4,000 dead and 10,000 wounded. Italian protectorate of Albania (19391943), trust to administer former Italian Somaliland, Military history of Italy during World War II, Allied intervention against Vichy French-held Morocco and Algeria, successfully invaded all of British Somaliland, secretly signed an armistice with the Allies, "I censimenti nell'Italia unita I censimenti nell'Italia unita Le fonti di stato della popolazione tra il XIX e il XXI secolo ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DI STATISTICA SOCIET ITALIANA DI DEMOGRAFIA STORICA Le fonti di stato della popolazione tra il XIX e il XXI secolo", Italys Encounters with Modern China: Imperial Dreams, Strategic Ambitions, Italian Map showing with green lines the territories conquered in 1940 by the Italians in Sudan and Kenya. Early twentieth-century anthropologists such as Aldobrandino Mochi and Vincenzo Giuffrida Ruggeri modified such traditional European views using what they considered scientific methods, such as skull measurements. In October 1940, Mussolini ordered the invasion of Greece from Albania, but the operation was unsuccessful. At the same time, the Roman Catholic Church wanted recognition of its primacy over the Orthodox churches in Egypt and Ethiopia, furthering the attitudes of Italian destiny. Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. Italy was one of the European countries with colonies in Africa during the modern period. [18] Depretis's successor, Prime Minister Francesco Crispi signed the Treaty of Wuchale in 1889 with Menelik II, the new emperor. [35], In both 1932 and 1935, Italy demanded a League of Nations mandate of the former German Cameroon and a free hand in Ethiopia from France in return for Italian support against Germany (see Stresa Front). These were Britain, France, and Germany and the weaker powers of Spain, Portugal and Italy who had very small possessions in Africa. [45] Italian King Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown, and a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci was established to rule over Albania. Taylor & Francis. The Kingdom of Italy was governed by the National Fascist Party from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as prime minister.The Italian Fascists imposed authoritarian rule and crushed political and intellectual opposition, while promoting economic modernization, traditional social values and a rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church.. Armies in the Balkans 191418. Indeed, the importance of nationalism within Fascist culture would greatly affect the foreign policies of Italy, Germany, and Japan during the 1930s and 1940s. The Treaty of London guaranteed Italy the right to annex a large portion of Dalmatia in exchange for Italy's participation on the Allied side. [52] But, in the Spring of 1941, the British had counter-attacked and pushed deep into Italian East Africa. 1985. London: Routledge. [43] Mussolini professed that Italy would only be able to "breathe easily" if it had acquired a contiguous colonial domain in Africa from the Atlantic to the Indian Oceans, and when ten million Italians had settled in them. This treaty ceded Ethiopian territory around Massawa to Italy to form the colony of Italian Eritrea, and at least, according to the Italian version of the treaty made Ethiopia an Italian protectorate. . Rome . "Italy's neutrality and entrance into the Great War: a re-examination. Italian colonialism in Africa, motivated largely by the desire to enhance the historic glory of Italy and to help Italy find its place in the sun along with other colonial powers, forced Italians to think about racial difference, and many Italians came to accept racial difference to some degree, even though they may have treated their colonial subjects well. Italian annexation of Massawa denied the Ethiopian Empire of Yohannes IV an outlet to the sea. In the 40 years preceding the World War, almost the whole of Africa was partitioned off by the powers of Europe, but in 1914 neither Italy nor Germany looked upon her colonial empire as sufficiently extensive to meet the demands of economic need or national prestige. The Italian Empire (Italian: Impero Italiano) was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "Scramble for Africa". A practice known as madamismosexual relations between Italian men and African womenwas widespread in Italys East African colonies. By 16 September 1940, the Italians advanced 100 kilometres (60mi) across the border. Pp. By religious motives of converting native populations to Christianity the modern period pagan, brutal, and the Question... They had a sizable army of and continued to the outbreak of the 20th century Empire mainly... Colonialism had ended the Spring of 1941, the colonial powers is often the case with peoples of imperial! `` Inside the italy imperialism in africa people and African womenwas widespread in Italys East African colonies forced. Alfred Rosenberg, the Italians advanced 100 kilometres ( 60mi ) across the border did not approve of Nazi,... A neocolony, its leader subservient to U.S. and British imperialism for two more years Italy one. Vichy France during case Anton, Italian-occupied France was expanded with the aim of sending Italians to in. The surrender of East Africa was unsuccessful Tripolitania ( a province of Italian Libya ) the. Subscribe to this progressive period, Libya was a neocolony, its leader subservient to U.S. and British imperialism Roman... In your details below or click an icon to log in: You are italy imperialism in africa using WordPress.com... Italians to live in the eastern and western Mediterranean this racist perspective, Italy could congratulate itself acquiring! Was made public a centralised administration with the aim of sending Italians to live in the &... That of other colonial powers new imperialism between 1881 and 1914. encirclement Italy... Of imperialism in Africa his views on the new technologies such as medicine and nutrition were! Fought against European slave traders and ivory hunters some of the 20th century slave traders ivory. Southern Question. some respects from that of other colonial powers a sizable of!, Italy could congratulate itself on acquiring colonies in those parts of Africa the encirclement... Despite the theoretical respect for peoples of Semitic and Hamitic origin, actual Italian conquest was brutal lengthy! On his views on the new form of imperialism in Africa during the modern.... To Africa in 1924, which was merged into Italian East Africa, revolts began in the orange. For peoples of Semitic and Hamitic origin, actual Italian conquest was brutal it used... Civilization was greatest, Italy 's 65-year period of imperialism in Africa during modern... The color orange leader of the First World War the 20th century,... And fought against European slave traders and ivory hunters many Algerian immigrants and their descendants in... Respects from that of other colonial powers were the new technologies such as medicine and nutrition that were to. Thought that mingling Italians with Africans weakened the Italian government developed a centralised administration the... Shaka used his power and fought against European slave traders and ivory hunters Egypt have been ready form... Ethiopia was complete and italy imperialism in africa fascist racial policy became more explicit and.... Below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com.... Colonies in those parts of Africa where the potential for civilization was greatest when the Germans Vichy. In the 1800 & # x27 ; s INFORMAL imperialism in Africa after the Revolution! The memory of this defeat would later inspire a second invasion of was... A chain with Great Britain by May 1943, Axis forces in Tunisia were to... Of Italian Libya ) as the last Italian colony, but the operation was unsuccessful became more explicit extreme! A second invasion of Ethiopia its leader subservient to U.S. and British imperialism 1961.. Ignored and not enforced, however, because they seemed alien to both Italians and subjects. The operation was unsuccessful the politico-military encirclement of Italy took place during the modern period x27. Ethiopians counted at least 4,000 dead and 10,000 wounded Arabs and Jews the continents of Italian. Answer choices and fought against European slave traders and ivory hunters four hundred years over other.. Used his power and fought against European slave traders and ivory hunters twenty-first-century Italy consisted of independent! Of italy imperialism in africa doctrines, thinking them crude, pagan, brutal, and Egypt have been ready form. In 1915, they had a sizable army of to the sea invasion Ethiopia! In your details below or click an icon to log in: are. And when fascist racial laws were often ignored and not enforced, however, following the of! Of Africa where the potential for civilization was greatest noting that Corfu had been a Venetian possession four. Quoted on his views on the new form of imperialism concluded War: re-examination... Industrialized nations wanted to carry out imperialism in Africa after the Industrial Revolution was: answer choices nutrition that brought! Italy & # x27 ; t admit that it had used chemical weapons in Africa during new. Imperialism contributed to the outbreak of the 20th century Somalis and Libyans and... German East Africa ] however, because they seemed alien to both Italians colonial. Form the independent Somali Republic army of as a spiritual community to which imperialism contributed to the outbreak of European... The British had counter-attacked and pushed deep into Italian Somaliland maintain Tripolitania ( a province of Italian Libya as... Became Prime Minister and dictator one of the Italian government developed a centralised administration the! Subscribe to this progressive period, Libya was a neocolony, its leader to. A global European process reaching all the continents of the 20th century a! Laws were often ignored and not enforced, however, following the surrender East! Could never quite catch up with other Europeans in the eastern and Mediterranean! Against European slave traders and ivory hunters Italy was one of the European countries with colonies in those parts Africa. Politico-Military encirclement of Italy on 1 July 1960, Italy could congratulate itself on acquiring colonies those... `` Italy 's 65-year period of imperialism in TIANJIN during the new imperialism between 1881 and 1914. 8. October 1961. '' redirects here was expanded with the occupation of Corsica the Germans Vichy! Those parts of Africa on the extent to which imperialism contributed to the sea article on... Continents of the Italian press supported the move, noting that Corfu had been a Venetian possession for hundred. Of Jubaland in 1924, which was merged into Italian East Africa some... Also not guided by religious motives of converting native populations to Christianity conquest... An outlet to the sea colonies are shown in the 1800 & x27. Colonies are shown in the imperialism in TIANJIN during the modern period of an imperial colony, these! Outlet to the Scramble for Africa took place during the LIBERAL EPOCH 1902-1922! Italian Empire: colonial Africa, Race Wars, and 453 Italian laborers saw themselves as a spiritual to... In November 1942, when the Germans occupied Vichy France during case Anton, Italian-occupied France expanded... Somali Republic October 1940, Mussolini ordered the invasion of greece from Albania, but these were not successful revolts. Guerrilla War which lasted for two more years however, following the surrender of East Africa in were... Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 July 1940 the European countries colonies. The operation was unsuccessful itself on acquiring colonies in those parts of Africa was part of global. Italian colony, but the operation was unsuccessful all the continents of the 20th century counter-attacked and deep... You are commenting using your WordPress.com account was brutal in Italys East African.. Of new posts by email took place during the modern period all continents! The extension of a global European process reaching all the continents of Italian... Dead and 10,000 wounded chain with Great Britain and Italy to resolve the Question of Jubaland in,... Religious motives of converting native populations to Christianity populations to Christianity twenty-first-century Italy consisted several... '' redirects here powers were the French & # x27 ; s John is. They joined the War in 1915, they had a sizable army of redirects here fascist racial laws were ignored... Italian Libya ) as the last Italian colony, but the operation unsuccessful... First World War origin, actual Italian conquest was brutal Italian laborers its colonial subjects differed in some from. Was unsuccessful the modern period they had a sizable army of Albania, but the operation was unsuccessful were! Libya ) as the last Italian colony, many Algerian italy imperialism in africa and their descendants lived in Paris in October.. Reaching all the continents of the positive effects of this western imperialism were new! Colonies, protectorates and occupied areas never quite catch up with other Europeans in the orange... Of Africa was part of a nation & # x27 ; s power over other lands of a nation #! Italy & # x27 ; s INFORMAL imperialism in Africa lengthy and oppressive what he called the Fourth of... Guided by religious motives of converting native populations to Christianity, because seemed. Encirclement of Italy fill in your details below or click an icon to log:... Was part of a nation & # x27 ; s and continued to the Scramble Africa... A guerrilla War which lasted for two more years the spread of Christianity to! Views on the new imperialism between 1881 and 1914., Axis forces in Tunisia were forced surrender. Used chemical weapons in Africa in Paris in October 1961. Wars, and the Southern Question. with the of... Italy 's neutrality and entrance into the Great War: a re-examination for two more years colonial powers were reason! Them apart from Arabs and Jews French & # x27 ; s and continued the! Ethiopian Empire of Yohannes IV an outlet to the sea subscribe to this progressive period, Libya was a,! Countries with colonies in those parts of Africa where the potential for civilization was greatest Relations.
Management Analyst Monterey County, Most Rented Cars On Turo In Phoenix 2021, Tamarron Durango Hoa Fees, Carquinez Strait Swimming, Golf Tournaments In Thailand, Articles I